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مستخدم:هود/ملعب/7

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Muhammad[n 1] ((بالعربية: مُحَمَّد), تلفظ ‎[muˈħammad]‏;[n 2] c. 570 CE – 8 June 632 CE)[1] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[2] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, sent to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[2][3][4][5] He is believed to be the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though some modern denominations diverge from this belief.[n 3] Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran and (according to Sunni and Shia tradition) his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.

Born approximately 570 CE (Year of the Elephant) in the Arabian city of Mecca, Muhammad was orphaned at the age of six.[6] He was raised under the care of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, and upon his death, by his uncle Abu Talib.[7] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave[8][9] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,[10] Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,[11] proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (islām) to God[12] is the right way of life (dīn),[13] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.[14][15][16]

Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[17][18]

The revelations (each known as Ayah – literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia).


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  1. ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam, page 248, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
  2. ^ ا ب Alford T. Welch؛ Ahmad S. Moussalli؛ Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad". في John L. Esposito (المحرر). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2017-02-11. The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind.
  3. ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
  4. ^ Peters، F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ص. 9. ISBN:978-0-691-11553-5.
  5. ^ Esposito، John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ص. 9, 12. ISBN:978-0-19-511234-4.
  6. ^ "Early Years". Al-Islam.org (بالإنجليزية). Retrieved 2018-10-18.
  7. ^ Watt (1974), p. 7.
  8. ^ * Conrad، Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. ج. 50 ع. 2: 225–40. DOI:10.1017/S0041977X00049016.
  9. ^ Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
  10. ^ Howarth, Stephen. Knights Templar. 1985. (ردمك 978-0-8264-8034-7) p. 199
  11. ^ Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. (ردمك 978-1-872531-65-6).
  12. ^ "Islam: An Overview – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com (بالإنجليزية). Retrieved 2018-07-25.
  13. ^ Anis Ahmad (2009). "Dīn". في John L. Esposito (المحرر). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2017-12-05. A second important aspect of the meaning of the term emerges in Meccan revelations concerning the practice of the Prophet Abraham. Here it stands for the straight path (al-dīn al-ḥanīf) toward which Abraham and other messengers called the people [...] The Qurʿān asserts that this was the path or practice followed by Abraham [...] In the final analysis, dīn encompasses social and spiritual, as well the legal and political behaviour of the believers as a comprehensive way of life, a connotation wider than the word "religion."
  14. ^ F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
  15. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
  16. ^ Buhl، F.؛ Welch، A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam (ط. 2nd). Brill. ج. 7. ص. 360–376. ISBN:978-90-04-09419-2.
  17. ^ "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
  18. ^ See:
    • Holt (1977a), p. 57
    • Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
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